IP Addresses
You can purchase ip addresses from thousands of service providers. Of course a large company is not going to buy a static ip from some fly by night company because the only value of paying for an ip address is the security that the company provides to protect and provide this service to you.
Generally large companies will gain there ip addresses from telco (Telephone Company/TeleCommunication) operations, ie there internet backbone provider, verizon..at and t and so forth. T1, T3 (T stands for Trunk or Telecommunications Level Connections) or OC3, OC12 (OC stands for Optical Connections) and so forth are the fat pipes that are provided for direct connections to the internet or large vpn (Virtual Private Networks) networks.
Don't quote me on this but I believe that the internic group originally had control over divvying out the ip addresses as well as domain names, but the domain name distribution of course now has been broken up and regulated out the wazzu.
I am sure that some large companies outsource their website hosting for financial reasons, it is much more cost effective and reliable to use a company that has a large server farm with multiple backbone connections to the internet for redundancy if one goes down, than to pay for these type of connections themselves.
Hope this helped or at least comes close to answering your questions.
and rob is right about whois, you can go to most large registrars godaddy.com networksolutions.com and so forth, and see there whois records which sometimes may produce more informative results if the web address was registered directly with them as well.
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